Oberlin Classics

[1] Ne perconteris: 2nd person subjunctive (= polite command), introduces an indirect question (A&G 573)
optime Quincti: superlative form of bonus-a-um in the vocative (A&G 291). Horace uses the superlative here to demonstrate respect for his friend Quinctius Hirpinus, despite their polarizing ways of life that become the subject of the poem. The gens Quinctia were a Roman patrician family. He is also the addressee of C. 2.11, which has thematic similarities to this poem. Both poems consider the benefits of a simple life, especially once one has entered into old age.

[2] erum: from erus, eri meaning “owner.”
pascat... opulentet: third person active verbs in the subjunctive because they form part of the indirect question introduced in line one. Horace details a number of the expected products of an estate, even though it would appear this estate is rather limited in its productivity (cf. lines 8-9 below, and previous mentions of its poor land at Ep. 1.14.23ff).

[3] amicta: perfect passive participle of amicire. The elm and vine are also mentioned back in Ep. 1.7.84.

[4] scribetur: literally “will be written” but taken with loquaciter the verb assumes a conversational tone and shows his great love of the topic. For a modern description of the site that blends much of the same eye for detail and love of the topography (situs agri), see Highet’s (1957) chapter on Horace from Poets in a Landscape.

[5] continui montes: supply sunt. The ecphrasis begins with the situs agri, and the steep mountains that surround the Sabine estate.
ni dissocientur: here part of a negative conditional, “if not, except for” with the present subjunctive instead of an imperfect subjunctive. The valley breaks up the mountainous landscape.

[6] ut… adspiciat… vaporet…: result clause (A&G 537). Horace describes how the geography of his estate’s locale produces an ideal climate.
adspiciat: a figurative way of describing the sun casting its light upon the land. Horace strongly personifies the comings and goings of the sun like a visitor to his estate.

[7] curru fugiente: an ablative of means (A&G 409). fugiente is an ablative singular present active participle from fugere. The sun was said to be a chariot driven by the sun god Helios, in some cases conflated with Apollo, across the sky each day.

[8] temperiem laudes: tempieries, literally means “proper mixture” or “temper”. In this context it refers to the “temperate” climate and the sense that the very locale is representative of the “golden mean”.
quid, si: interrogative, as Greenough (ad loc.) suggests, “i.e. you would admire the climate, I am sure, but what would you say if in addition…”
ferant… iuvet: deliberative subjunctives in a “what if” question. Iuvet here most literally means “supply with” but can also connote “aid” and “please,” creating an image of the estate itself as a benevolent force that “helps” Horace. This verb governs both pecus and dominum.

[9] rubicunda benigni/ corna vepres et pruna: benigni vepres constitute the sentence’s subject, with rubicunda… corna… pruna making up the direct objects. Horace’s word order is convoluted, likely representing the helter skelter nature of the wild plants and brambles paired in these lines.
corna... pruna: “cornel cherries” and “wild plum,” respectively.

[10] pecus: accusative singular direct object. A collective noun.
multa fruge… multa… pecus: ablative of means (A&G 409), note Horace’s use of parallel structure to denote the trees’ positive effects on both flock and farmer - the country estate is a place in which man and nature work harmoniously, as shown by the balance of the syntax. There is also a sense that this is a rather rustic and old-fashioned way of life.

[11] dicas: potential subjunctive (A&G 447). Horace’s estate is a veritable holiday destination.
Tarentum: modern day Taranto, a city on the southern coast of Italy. The city was an important location for the trading of various goods due to its coastal location. Probably refers back to “Old Man of Tarentum” in Vergil’s Georgics 4.125-48, and it is mentioned earlier in the Epistles (1.7.45, cf. C. 2.6.13ff.).
frondere: A somewhat unusual verb meaning literally “to be leafy,” or “to put forth leaves,” but used here by Horace to describe the flowering state of the flora in Tarentum.

[12] idoneus: a predicate nominative with fons. The adjective can take an infinitive (A&G 461). The fons here very likely harkens back to the Fons Bandusiae famously described by the poet in Ode 3.13, which sits on his property, but it also could be Digentia (named in Ep. 1.18.104).
Hebrus: modern day Maritsa, a river which ran through ancient Thrace in northern Greece and emptied into the Aegean Sea. The river was especially known for its clear and cold waters.

[13] ambiat: literally “to go around,” but in the context of a river assumes the meaning of “flow” or wind” through.
Thraecam: the ancient region of Thrace, which is today split between Bulgaria, Turkey, and Greece.

[14] fluit utilis, utilis: utilis takes the dative. The metrical flow of these words when read aloud is possibly meant to mimic the lilt of a river. Also note the rhythmic nature of the chiasmus.
Because of the spring which feeds the waters of the stream, those who drink from it can be sure that the water is clean and safe to drink, as opposed to water collected in a reservoir (collectaculum), which can lose its freshness. Elsewhere, Horace writes about the curative nature of certain waters (Ep. 1.15.8). For more on the healing properties of water in the Roman world, see Ingrid Edlund-Berry’s “Hot, Cold, or Smelly: The Power of Sacred Water in Roman Religion, 400–100 BCE” in Religion in Republican Italy, vol. XXXIII, Cambridge University Press, 2006.

[15] si credis: i.e. “If I have convinced you of the attractiveness of my rural life.”
amoenae: the locus amoenus is a common topos of Bucolic poetry and has a lengthy tradition from Greek poets such as Theocritus to contemporary Ecological writers.

[16] me: Accusative singular modified by incolumem. This farm (the “hiding place” latebrae) allows Horace to be safe and sound for Quinctius and his other friends.
horis Septembribus: This time of year was known for fevers in Rome (i.e. the season of the febrem in line 22, and Ep. 1.7.5).

[17] vivis… si curas: present general condition (A&G 514). A somewhat-generalizing truism advising living prudently and virtuously, a typical sentiment of Horace’s Epistles (esp. with its recurrent concern about living recte, cf. 1.6.29).. However, it also emphasizes Horace’s value of not just aesthetics, as he has dwelled on in some descriptions of his farm, but also of attending to one’s proper duties.
esse quod audis: Horace encourages Quinctius to live up to the high standard others expect of his behavior, as he will elaborate on in the proceeding lines. audis: “you hear you are called” (cf. Ep. 1.7.38).

[18] omnis te Roma beatum: although the verb is first person plural, omnis… Roma acts as a predicate nominative (e.g. the poet includes himself among the people of Rome who consider Quinctius beatus).

[19] vereor, ne tui… credas: a clause of fearing (A&G 564). Within it, Horace seems to delight in using as many pronouns as possible. Credas takes the dative cui as its object, with plus quam tibi providing a comparison. Horace is concerned that the city’s gossip and the public’s aforementioned praise of Quinctius will become more important to his identity than his own inner beliefs about himself. Know thyself!

[20] neu: a contracted form of neve. Horace continues the clause of fearing with another of his concerns.
putes: introduces an indirect statement, with alium as its accusative subject (A&G 580) of an implied esse. Beatum operates as a predicate "nominative” in this construction.
alium sapiente bonoque beatum: a comparative phrase; for alium with comparative ablatives, see A&G 407d. It means “anyone other than.” Although the public may consider someone “blessed” (beatum), Horace questions whether anyone besides the wise and good man should be esteemed so highly. Horace thus reiterates that he does not want his friend to lose sight of where true virtue comes from. Horace will return to the wise and good man at line 73 and Mayer (ad loc.) stresses a later redefinition of this blessedness at C. 4.9.45-50. What it truly means to be beatus has been on Horace's mind from his early Epodes (2.1) and even in certain odes, (cf. C.1.4.14).

[21] This is a continuation of line 18 wherein Horace introduces the idea of the public discussing the health and well-being of Quinctius. However, here Horace removes himself from the populus in switching from the 1st person plural voice in line 18 (iactamus) to a 3rd person singular in the verb dictitet (see below).

[22] dictitet: pairs with dissimules in the present subjunctive to form a Future Less Vivid condition (A&G 516). The frequentative dictitet “suggests unreflecting repetition; one comes to believe what is heard so often” (Mayer ad loc.).
edendi: A gerund in the genitive case (A&G 501). For the genitive with nouns see A&G 342.

[23] donec tremor incidat: You can only hide your sickness for so long (and Horace would say that one who is morally “sick” also will reveal their condition before too long). For tremors as a sign of fever, see Cels. 3.3: incipiunt fere ab horrore...ubi totum corpus intremit.
unctis… manibus: the “greasy” or “oily” hands are because the dinner has begun. The Romans most often ate their food with their hands, rather than with utensils. Horace also uses uncta in Ep. 1.14.21 when referring to a popina, a “cook-shop,” which would have been the Roman equivalent to today’s fast-food joints.

[24] stultorum: take as a substantive in the genitive, i.e. “of foolish men.” Horace is claiming that a man is a fool if he attempts to hide his wounds out of a sense of shame. One should rather be open about such wounds. For more on pudor in Rome see the chapter in Kaster 2005.

[25] bella...terra pugnata marique: “wars having been fought over land or sea.” Terra and mari are locative ablatives (A&G 426) with the perfect passive participle pugnata.

[26] dicat: the subjunctive of the protasis of this Future Less Vivid condition continued in line 29 after the quotation (A&G 514).
vacuas auris: the ears of Quinctius are “empty” implying that he does not listen to the advice of H. and others. Remember the use of ears in Ep. 1. (cf. 1.1.7)!

[27] tene: the accusative pronoun te with an interrogative ne particle on the end, not to be confused with the imperative of teneo. Here, it introduces an indirect question (A&G 574).
salvum… velit: “to wish well.” Velit is subjunctive due to its function in an indirect question. Iuppiter, found at the end of the sentence, is the subject. Supply salvum velit with an populum tu as well - this clause is placed in comparison to tene… velit by magis. The hypothetical speaker here attempts to flatter Quinctius by praising both his benevolence to the public and the public’s alleged affection for him in return.

[28] qui… urbi: relative clause whose antecedent, Iuppiter, comes later in line 29.
consulit: here means “to look after” and takes a dative object.
servet in ambiguo: i.e. “pose the question” with servet (“keep, protect”) implying that the right to ask such a question is fit only for Jupiter. servet is a hortatory subjunctive.

[29] The apodosis of the Future Less Vivid conditional begun in line 25.
Augusti laudes: The praise Quinctius has been given is so high that it is suitable for Augustus. Outside the internal context of the poem itself, it could also be construed as praise of Augustus on Horace’s part, so it is possible that he’d expect Augustus himself (a potential reader of the Epistles) to be flattered by this praise.

[30] A temporal cum (A&G 545).
sapiens emendatusque: predicate nominatives explaining what Quinctius allows himself to be called. The fact that emendatus itself is a perfect passive participle implies that Quinctius has, in his own view, already gone through the process of self-improvement and now exists as the most ideal form of himself, without any possible room for growth.

[31] the enclitic ne in respondesne signifies a question (A&G 332).
tuo nomine: ablative of means. Horace implies that by responding to people addressing him as sapiens emendatusque, Quinctius is acknowledging and accepting these praises as true.
dic sodes: a rhetorical question serving as an interjection or aside. Sodes is an adverb meaning “if you please” (si + audes).

[32] delector: The 1st person singular present passive form of delecto, which takes a complementary infinitive (dici).
ac: a conjunction commonly meaning “and” or “also” but here instead meaning “as much as.”

[33] hoc: refers to the approval offered in the above line’s quote.
H. warns Quinctius that people will give and take away compliments as easily as one loses and gains political favor.
ut: “just as”.

[34] fasces: The fasces were bundles of rods that were carried before magistracies in Rome to symbolize authority. This is where the word “fascism” comes from.
idem: refers back to the subject of detulerit in the preceding clause. See repeated use also in note to line 36.

[35] pone, meum est: the magistrate demands possession of the fasces.
tristis: taken adverbially. Cf. Lucr. 3.995 for the same phrase used in a political context.

[36] idem: refers back to the subject of detulerit in line 34. The same person may impute many faults upon you, but you should not believe them to be true, even if they are a magistrate holding the fasces.
neget: introduces an indirect statement within the condition; supply me as its accusative subject.
si clamet… neget: future less vivid condition. Here Horace introduces a rather Stoic sentiment - false accusation of a petty crime is, in his view, equivalent to false accusation of far more serious offenses. The condition has three protases, sc. si for all of them. The apodosis is not found until mordear in line 38.

[37] contendat: introduces another indirect statement; again supply me as its subject.
collum...paternum: paternus-a-um is often used as a substitute for the genitive of pater, patris. Patricide was considered the worst crime in ancient Rome.
laqueo: ablative of means.

[38] mordear, mutemque: apodosis of the condition started in line 36, likely carrying a sense of indignation in this context, hinting at an implied response of “surely not.”
mutemque colores: could refer to the face reddening out of embarrassment or anger or, possibly, growing pale due to astonishment or fear.

[39] falsus honor: Unattested elsewhere, besides one mention in Cicero (Ep. ad Brut. 26.3).
iuvat...terret: take quem in the next line as the direct object.
mendax infamia: Likewise unattested, but anticipates the use of medium in the next line.

[40] medicandum: gerundive modifying quem. Horace questions whether the societal hierarchies at work inherently result in dishonesty and perceived reputation dictating one’s fortune. Further, he makes the point that only one who is genuinely concerned with the Roman ideas of honor and infamia would be also concerned with whether or not such conventions are unjust. Society, however, discourages one from considering such concerns.
vir bonus est quis?: This question is a set up for lines 41-62 in which H. offers his definition of the vir bonus. It turns out that it is not as cut and dry as one might expect.

[41] patrum: taken with the consulta, understand as “senator,” rather than the literal meaning of “father.”
servat: literally “to watch over,” but in the context of the consulta patrum understand as “listens to” or “heeds.”

[42-43] quo... quo...quo: The first quo is an ablative absolute (A&G 419), while the second and third are ablative of means (A&G 408). “with whose judgement… by whose sponsorship…”
multae magnaeque...lites: With the good man as judge, lawsuits can be “cut short” or “settled” (secantur).

[43] res: understand as res familiaris to get the meaning “properties,” rather than just “things.”
causae...tenentur: i.e. “the judicial process is upheld”.

[44] sed videt: Another verb of sight, but here with a sense of “know”. Horace questions the accuracy of the senses and tests how to truly understand someone’s motives and beliefs.
hunc: refers back to the man who has acted with such aplomb in the public and political life of Rome. His household and neighbors know he is an awful person in truth.

[45] speciosum pelle decora: speciosus takes an ablative of means. The juxtaposition between someone ugly on the inside (introrsum turpem, cf. Sat. 2.1.64), but with beautiful clothes makes reference to one of Aesop’s Fables, “The Ass in the Lion’s Skin.” The moral of the fable is that one’s true nature will always come to light eventually, no matter how they present themselves outwardly, although Horace immediately thinks of the specious reasoning of a slave.

[46] si… dicat… aio: A mixed condition that blends a less vivid protasis and indicative apodosis (A&G 514). Horace is sure of his response to the possible claim of the slave. By changing the subject of his discussion from a senator to a slave, Horace shows the universal phenomenon of disguising one’s true character with pretensions of virtue.
nec furtum feci nec fugi shows an impressive combination of anaphora and alliteration. This may be a partial allusion to the penchant for such alliteration in the speech of slaves in Roman comedy.

[47] pretium here sets up a dichotomy of action motivated by fear of punishment and desire for the “reward” of avoiding punishment rather than the pursuit of morality.

[48] pasces in cruce corvos: refers to the practice of crucifixion, which was a standard punishment for murder in Horace’s time.

[49] The “sins” the slave denies here - theft, murder, and poor character - echo those mentioned by Horace in lines 36-40. Furthermore, his assertion that he is a vir bonus and Horace’s responding critique that he is motivated solely by fear of punishment are applicable to senators as well as slaves, advancing the notion begun in line 46 that men from all walks of life can be guilty of false morality. However, as slaves do not have the opportunity to decide lawsuits or sponsor properties like upper-class men, Horace uses his judgement of the slave’s character in the upcoming lines to present his own model of a vir bonus, which differs from the qualities ascribed by society in lines 41-43. It is also worth noting, however, that Horace does not seem to treat the slave’s position regarding “virtue” with an appropriate level of nuance, as readers will see.
Sabellus: a name related to the Sabines, near where H. was born. Here, he is likely using this name to refer back to himself or certainly the old-fashioned Roman who believes strongly in the mos maiorum.

[50] accipiter: can also mean “flying gurnard” but here means “hawk”. The upcoming lines contain several words that can refer to either fish or fowl - likely intended as wordplay on Horace’s part.

[51] milvus: can also mean “kite,” but taken with the context of the hamum, the translation of “gurnard” is more correct. Cf. Ep. 1.7.74 for a similar fish/hook example. Horace uses the words milvus and accipiter in these lines to create an intentionally muddled simile. Just as the definition of the vir bonus is difficult to discern for both the author and the readers, so is the exact meaning of these two words at first glance.

[52] virtutis: objective genitive (A&G 347/348).
amore: ablative of cause (A&G 404).

[53] formidine poenae: i.e. “you only do good because you are afraid of the consequences of doing otherwise, rather than because it is right to do good.” formidine: can also refer to a tool used by hunters to scare game. Horace is therefore carrying on the imagery of animals who fear being hunted by using this word with a double meaning.

[54] sit… miscebis: A paratactic condition (A&G 268) wherein the apodosis and the protasis do not traditionally match one and other, but are simply put side by side to indicate a cause and effect relationship. If the opportunity arises, Horace claims, the reader (or Quinctius) would defile sacred rites (cf. Ars Poetica 396-7: fuit haec sapientia quondam / publica privatis secernere, sacra profanis).

[55] de mille modiis ...unum: cardinal number with ablative, i.e. “(x) out of (y).” This construction is an alternative to the partitive genitive.
fabae: genitive of material (A&G 344).

[56] the comparative lenius here compares damnum to facinus, not to pacto… isto.
pacto… isto: ablative of cause. Horace’s loss of an individual bean is not so much a blow to his finances as it is to his opinion of the slave’s character, because it proves that he is a thief (this is a very Stoic sentiment). This basically means “in that case” (of the trifling theft) - see Greenough ad loc.

[57] vir bonus: By beginning the next sentence with vir bonus, Horace implies that he is finally about to reveal the traits of the elusive “good man” he has as of yet spoken about but only provided counterexamples of. However, he then goes onto reveal that, as he has stated before, appearances are not everything: even a man whom omne forum et omne tribunal deem virtuous is not necessarily so. It is interesting that the forum and tribunal are personified as seeing this individual (and making the incorrect assumption), and it recalls the way the Via Appia and porticus Agrippae looked upon the man in Ep. 1.6.25-6.

[58] vel porco vel bove: ablative of means. These were animals traditionally sacrificed publicly by wealthy individuals as both a religious rite and, more cynically, a demonstration of one’s own piety.

[59] Iane pater: Janus was the Roman god of doorways, beginnings and ends, and transitions, among other related concepts. He was often depicted with two faces and frequently invoked at points of juncture or important decision making.
clare, clare: The repetition of clare here emphasizes the fact that the man being discussed is purposefully speaking loudly enough to be heard by others and thus maintain his pious and respectable image.
Apollo was one of the most important deities in Roman religious life. A son of Jupiter and one of the twelve Olympians, he was the god of music, medicine, prophecy, the sun, and more. Augustus also claimed him as his “patron” deity, and the connection between the two figures remained throughout Roman history. Thus, prayer to Apollo represents piety in respecting the gods, piety in respecting Augustus, and piety in respect for piety itself, since this was one of Augustus’s most frequently attributed traits. Miller 2009 is a fine treatment of the connections between Apollo and Augustus in the poets of this age.

[60] metuens: the nominative participle - here taking the infinitive (audiri). Horace strikes a contrast with the man’s previous clare speech. For praying “under your breath” for selfish gain, see Sen. Ep. 10.5.
Laverna: an Italian deity of thieves and trickery - thus explaining why the speaker here is metuens audiri.

[61] da: in the imperative form, meaning “grant” or “allow,” can take complementary infinitives (fallere).
videri: another complementary infinitive of da, this time in the passive. Often videoin the passive means “to seem,” tying back to the poem’s theme of perceived vs actual virtue, i.e. is the vir bonus truly a virtuous man, or is he a thief and a criminal?

[62] obice: the second person imperative of obicio, addressing the deity Laverna (see note to line 60). Horace is envisioning his vir bonus as actually being deceitful. He asks Laverna for help in covering up his crimes.

[63] qui… qui…: in this sense, take as an adverb meaning “in what way/respect.” In conjunction with non video in line 65, they introduce indirect questions.
melior: the irregular comparative form of bonus-a-um. sc. sit avarus with qui melior servo as well as the following clause.

[64] in triviis: "in the crossroads". In this line, Horace continues the idea begun in the above line, stating that avaricious men are slaves to the pursuit of money, and thus have no freedom. As a side note, it is interesting that this was a practical joke in antiquity (Pers. 5.111 describes the same joke).
demittit: literally to “drop” or “sink,” but here taken as “stoops over” with se as the accusative direct object.
ob: a preposition meaning “on account of.”
assem: an as was a copper coin, similar to a penny. The inclusion of the as as opposed to any other coin of greater value demonstrates the desperation of the avarus.

[65] quoque: adverb meaning “likewise.”
porro: “hereafter” or “further on.”

[66] mihi: a form of the dative of reference sometimes known as the “dative of person judging.” Horace expresses his own view on how the avarus will never be free, no matter how wealthy he is, because his desire for more will always bind and control him. (A&G 378).

[67] perdidit and deservit: gnomic perfects (A&G 475).

The specific language used to describe perdidit arma locum virtutis deservit is almost certainly a reference to the opening lines of Vergil's Aeneid (1.1). In deserting the traits of pious Aeneas, one also distances oneself from Augustus, his (alleged) direct descendant. Seneca liked the phrase locum virtutis and found ways to riff on it in his Medea (160-61) and Dial. 12.9.3.

[68] in augenda...re: ablative gerundive. They are consumed by their desire to increase wealth, note how the prepositional phrase surrounds and encompasses the verbs.

[69] cum: temporal. Horace again discusses servi in terms of their usefulness, rather than humanity.
occidere noli: for noli with the infinitive = negative command see A&G 450.

[70] sine: singular imperative of sino, not to be confused with the preposition sine. Verbs of permitting can take a purpose clause without ut (A&G 563c). sine is usually colloquially with the subjunctive often in Latin, and usually one can translate the subjunctive like a hortatory subjunctive (Lewis and Short sinere II.A.1). All of the subjunctives in the following lines ultimately spring from this initial sine.

[71] mercator: a predicate nominative.

[72] prosit: takes the dative (annonae).
These quoted lines make the argument that one acts in their best interest by not “wasting” the resource of a captive (slave) by ending his life, but rather put him to hard work (durus) so that he might do your toil for you and make your life easier.

[73] vir bonus… Penetheu: Horace here is referencing the myth of King Pentheus and Bacchus, as told in Euripides’ Bacchae (he also alludes to it at C. 2.19.14-15). The vir bonus et sapiens is possibly Bacchus himself, in disguise, confronting Pentheus, following the plot of the tragedy. In this way, Bacchus himself takes up the mantle of the vir bonus, demonstrating to Horace’s readers that the true vir bonus is one who values freedom over material goods (one crime of Pentheus was that he chained up Bacchus while he was a guest under the King’s roof, thus violating the law of ξενία/xenia). In her book Horace Between Freedom and Slavery, Stephanie McCarter suggests a parallel between Pentheus and Horace’s patron, Maecenas, who is the addressee of many of the Epistles. Just as Pentheus here seeks to infringe upon the freedoms of Bacchus, so Horace may be chafing under the authority of his patron.

[74] Lines 74-78 consist of dialogue exchanged back and forth between Pentheus and the vir bonus et sapiens.

[75] coges: “force” or “compel.”
bona: substantive for “wealth/goods.”
rem: here again likely refers to property or material wealth.

[76] tollas: subjunctive in a substantive clause introduced by licet (A&G 565). The speaker reveals a philosophical lack of concern for material goods (this could apply both to Epicureanism and Stoicism).

[77] Seeing that the speaker is unaffected by the prospect of losing his physical belongings, Pentheus threatens his freedom and agency itself. The recent suicide by Cato the Younger, who meant to protect his freedom in the face of Julius Caesar’s autocracy, might be behind these lines.

[78] ipse deus: often when one god in the masculine gender is referenced, Jupiter is being invoked. This is possibly meant to be ironic, since in Euripides’ Bacchae, these lines would have been spoken by a Bacchus, a god himself.

[79] hoc sentit: can be taken either as “has this meaning” or “this means”.
moriar: the Epicureans considered death to be a natural occurrence in the course of human existence that should not be regarded with fear, rather than as a punishment.
ultima linea: predicate nominative.
rerum: here refers to earthly matters in general (cf sunt lacrimae rerum, Aen. 1.462), but the word choice is intended to harken back to the disputes and anxieties over property and wealth in previous lines throughout the poem. This remarkably Epicurean and Stoic sentiment is a neat and “tidy” conclusion to a long and meandering poem.

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